Verbal irony is when someone says one thing but means another. For example, describing something being "as pleasant as surgery." You say something in a manner that has a literal connotation, but express something different in the context of the situation. This is the mechanism that makes sarcasm work. Sarcasm and irony frequently overlap, but the distinction is that sarcasm is meant to mock things. Not all verbal irony is sarcastic and not all sarcasm is ironic. Unlike the other types of irony, this kind is intentional.
Dramatic irony is the disparity of awareness between a character and the audience. Shakespeare used this device all the time: Romeo kills himself because he thinks Juliet is dead, but we know she only took a sleeping potion. In Othello, the audience knows that Iago is lying long before the characters do.
Situational irony is when the result of an action is contrary to a desire of expected effect. It's like climbing up a tree to escape a wolf and then getting struck by lightning, or going to bed early for an important meeting and then oversleeping.
Cosmic irony... technically isn't irony at all. It's the sharp contrast between human intention and harsh realities of the world. This is essentially when the universe seems to be screwing with you. Imagine that you're buying an anniversary gift for your boyfriend. You sold your hair to buy him a gold necklace, only to find out that he's allergic to gold and that he bought you a comb. Whoops.
Since it's often misused, let's point out that irony is not:
-a lie
-a joke
-a coincidence
-merely anything unexpected
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These are coincidences:
-A chef being eaten by cannibals
-A dog lover mauled to death by pit bulls
-Being mugged right after you withdraw cash from the ATM
These are ironic situations:
-Accidentally pushing your friend off a bridge while shoving him out of a way of a moving car
-Being killed by a safety feature
-Choking on the pill of immortality
Irony is great for stories because it creates conflict and helps move a plot forward. Unexpected outcomes and complications keep us interested, even if we don't always like them. Think of all the times you've sat through a bad story simply because you wanted to see how it all played out. People aren't deeply moved by things that are common or mundane. That's why we find things that are predictable to be boring, and the reason why jokes aren't as funny when you already know the punchline.
But assumptions can only be proven wrong so many times. A story must eventually deliver on some expectations of the audience. A hero eventually triumphs and a villain faces justice. The honest are rewarded and the greedy are left with nothing. This is because stories are used to paint the image of our ideal worlds. We expect people to get what they deserve. That's why cosmic irony gets a strong reaction from us - especially endings. It's hard to see a good person suffer or watch a villain get away. Though these outcomes are plausible and realistic... they just aren't satisfying. It's difficult to be reminded that, unlike in stories, life truly is unfair. That's why we refer to fate being cruel.
Dramatic irony is great at creating tension. You see it all the time with Horror. Watching a character walk through a haunted house is scary because you expect something to jump out... but watching them explore the room where you know the ghost is waiting? Ho. Ly. Shit. Any time you've yelled at the screen in frustration or groaned at the actions of a character is likely the result of this dramatic irony. Think of all the times a character walks right past a vital clue or gets into an obviously dangerous situation. These scenes are frustrating because you know that the choices being made are bad, even though the characters don't.
Dramatic irony also creates some of the saddest and most memorable moments. In the Futurama episode, "Jurassic Bark", Fry decides not to resurrect his dog, Seymour, after finding out that it had lived another 12 years after he disappeared. He assumes that Seymour lived a full life and had forgotten him, and that it would be best to let him rest in peace. In the final flashback, it is revealed that Seymour sat for years and years, waiting for his master's return while the world around him slowly changed. He grows older and older until he finally lies down and closes his eyes for the last time. The feeling of, "...Fry was so close. If only he knew..." is the reason why scenes like this one are so heartbreaking.
Sigh, the feels.
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